Theories and a biopsychology of addiction

Theories and a biopsychology of addiction The biopsychology of addiction examines the interaction of biological aspects associated with addictive behaviors. The word addiction comes from the Latin verb addicere meaning to enslave (Yucel, Lubman, Solowij, Brewer, 2007). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition-Text Revision identifies drug addiction as a dependence syndrome with essential features of a lack of control over drug use despite significant drug-related problems (Kranzler Li, 2008). The prevalence and problems associated with drug addiction cost an estimated $524 billion a year, including health care, productivity loss, crime, incarceration, and drug enforcement (NIDA, 2009). Advanced research confirms that addiction is a disease because it alters the brain. It shares common attributes with other chronic diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes. The underlying concept is that there is a disruption in healthy functioning that results in serious, harmful consequences, although treatable, that can potentially last a lifetime (NIDA, 2009). Recreational drug use usually begins in adolescents at a stage in development most vulnerable to executive functioning impairment. Executive functioning impacts decision making, judgments, and emotional regulation. Brown, et al. (2008) found an increase in drinking during the age span between 16 to 20 years that fuels neurological damage and social impairments. Beckson (2005) reported an increase in adolescent drug use. Preven tion of drug addiction needs to start during adolescents because it usually begins during this stage in development. The goal of this paper is to explore multiple factors related to the biopsychology of addiction, including the molecular level of synaptic neuron communication, neurotransmitters, brain anatomy, drugs of abuse, relapse, and long-term effects of addiction. The genetic and environmental influences along with stress play significant roles in drug addiction. Theories of addiction exist with a growing agreement among experts that the Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction provides the best explanation. Robinson and Berridge (2003) describe several theories. Opponent Process Theory of Addiction The first theory described by Robinson and Berridge (2003), is the Opponent Process Theory of Addiction representing the traditional view of addiction. Pinel (2009) refers to this theory as the Physical-dependence Theories of Addiction. Initially drugs are taken for the positive feelings, but gradually build tolerance and dependence to the drug. Withdrawal symptoms begin and compulsive drug cravings take over. Drug use continues in an effort to avoid negative withdrawal symptoms and achieve the pleasurable effects again. Other names for this traditional theory of addiction include pleasure-pain, positive-negative reinforcement, opponent process, hedonic homeostasis, hedonic dysregulation, and reward allostasis (Robinson Berridge, 2003). Limitations exist with this theory because not all drugs, such as heroin, produce serious withdrawal symptoms. A major argument against this theory is that after a period of abstinence the rate of relapse remains high despite the lack of withdrawal s ymptoms. Positive-incentive Theory of Addiction Another theory described by Robinson and Berridge (2003) involves aberrant learning suggesting that drugs create a strong connection to natural reward centers based on learning through classical conditioning. Pinel (2009) refers to this theory as the Positive-incentive theories of drug addiction. Explicit learning as a subcategory of aberrant learning describes the learning process through declarative associations at a conscious level between actions and outcome. Explicit learning also involves the declarative predictive relationships between environmental cues and expectation or anticipation of rewards, such as drugs. Declarative learning does not sufficiently explain the transition from recreational drug use to drug addiction. Addicts do not report exaggerated declarative memories or expectations of drug pleasure because they know the pleasure gained is not worth the consequences suffered (Robinson and Berridge, 2003). Implicit learning as a second subcategory of aberrant learning describes the unconscious procedural learning that occurs automatically by pairing a stimulus and response. Drug use becomes an automatic response through the corticostriatal loops operating through the dorsal striatum (Robinson Berridge, 2003). The aberrant learning theory does not hold up under scrutiny either because implicit learning does not actually generate an automatic response, such as tying your shoe, because it is compulsion that motivates the continuation of drug use and drives the cycle of addiction. Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction The Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction best explains the transition from drug use to drug addiction. According to Robinson and Berridge (2008), the theory states that repeated drug use changes brain cells and brain neural circuitry creating a hypersensitivity to repeated drug use and associated drug cues. Incentive sensitization generates a pathological motivation or wanting of drugs that last for years, even after abstinence. The wanting of drugs may be implicit by an unconscious wanting or explicit by a conscious craving. The addicts focus on drugs is created from an interaction between incentive salience mechanisms with associated learning mechanisms. Pathological motivation generated from sensitization of brain circuits stems from a Pavlovian conditioned incentive or motivational process, known as incentive sensitization. Associative learning can trigger the motivation for drugs through incentive attributes, such as within the context of associated drug experiences and i nteractions. The pathological motivation drives the addict to seek and obtain drugs at any cost. However, the stimulus-response learned association does not fully explain the core problem of addiction. Damage or dysfunction in cortical regions creates changes in executive functioning resulting in impairments. These impairments play an important role in the addicts poor choices about drugs coupled with pathological incentive motivation for drugs triggered through incentive sensitization. Sensitization specifically refers to the increase in drug effect caused by repeated drug use. Incentive sensitization is essence of the theory. Engagement of brain incentive or reward systems, include the mesotelencephalic dopamine systems. It is the hypersensitivity in the motivation circuitry that contributes mostly to the addictive wanting of drugs. Evidence in favor of the incentive sensitization from past studies includes three features of incentive stimulus: Pavlovian conditioned approach to behavior, Pavlovian instrumental transfers, and conditioned reinforcement. The sensitization related changes in the brain are important for the transition from casual to compulsive drug use. Changes in the brain include a much larger increase in the density of dendritic spines on medium spiny neurons in the core of the nucleus accumbens. It relates to development of psychomotor sensitization. Studies further indicate that the neural changes underlying sensitization may be sufficient to promote subsequent addict-like behaviors. The essential factor in addiction is neural sensitization. Nature versus Nurture On the one hand, a genetic predisposition toward drug addiction appears evident for a substantial number of individuals. Researchers are continuing to identify specific genes related to drug addiction. The use of Quantitative Trait Locus Mapping contributes to identify specific genes for the risk and protection against addictive behavior (Crabbe, 2002). On the other hand, the learning hypothesis suggest drugs promote the learning of strong stimulus-response habits leading to compulsive behavior paired with rituals involved in consuming drugs (Robinson Berridge, 2008). Associative learning occurs in drug addiction through Pavlovian conditioning. The motivation for drugs becomes incentive sensitive when encountering familiar associations within the context and surrounding of the drug use, friends, location, and the like. Churchland (2004) argues that everything we know is the result of both our genetic makeup and our environmental experiences. Science has shown that development depends upon both genes and experience. Genes produce the hardware and experience provides the software. Learning occurs through genetic unfolding that generates changes in cells through memory systems of learning experiences constructed from environmental experiences. Our brain neuromodulators act upon synapses and become strengthened with repeated exposure that provides the foundation for learning. According to Kranzler and Li (2008) drug addiction stems from a combination of genetic, environmental, social, and psychological factors. The study of addiction involves multiple disciplines, including neuroscience, epidemiology, genetics, molecular biology, pharmacology, psychology, psychiatry, and sociology. It is not a matter of nature versus nurture, but more accurately nature and nurture. It is well known that addiction stems from a genetic predisposition and environmental stress and influences. Li, Mao, and Wei (2008) report that an estimated 40% to 60% of genetic factors appear responsible for drug addiction and the remaining percentage of factors relate to environmental factors. Genes and common pathways appear to underlie drug addictions. In a study conducted by Li, Mao, and Wei (2008), an extensive review of the genetic research associated with drug addiction resulted in the creation of the Knowledgebase of Addiction-Related Genes (KARG). The KARG is the first database of a bioinformatic compilation of genetic research on addiction. Through statistical analysis of the database, the authors found five common pathways in addiction, including neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, long-term potentiation, GnRH signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, and Gap junctions. Advances in science from the use of new technology, such as tillingarray and proteomics, provid e new avenues in studying the underlying pathways and genetic composition of addiction and how addiction forms from environmental influences. Brain Communication Chemical messengers called neurotransmitters carry information across tiny spaces, called synapses that exist between neurons (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberts, 2008). The brain communicates through electrical and chemical signals transmitted from neuron to neuron. A neuron represents the brains communication network. A neurotransmitter is released from one neuron into the synapse within 20 to 50 nanometers of the receiving neuron (Lovinger, 2008). The releasing neuron is referred to as presynaptic neuron and has at the tip of its axon terminals small pockets known as vesicles. These vesicles contain neurotransmitters that release molecules when activated by the action potential stimulated by the presynaptic neuron. The neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic gap between the two neurons. The post-synaptic neuron receives the neurotransmitter and binds it to the receptor site. According to Lovinger (2008) two major categories of neurotransmitter receptors, include the ligand-gated ion channel (LGIC) receptors and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). The LGIC produces an excitatory or an inhibitory reaction depending on the action potential. The GPCRs represent proteins that bind neurotransmitter molecules and activate intercellular reactions. Once the neurotransmitter is released it becomes rapidly removed by neurotransmitter transporters. The neurotransmitter transporters are housed on the surface of the neurons cell membrane and rapidly retrieve the neurotransmitter pulling it inside the neuron. The uptake reloads the neurotransmitter into vesicles and the cycle repeats. Other brain chemicals exist, such as neurotrophins and steroid hormones. Lovington (2008) describes neurotrophins as peptides or amino acids secreted from different neuron structures, such as axon terminals and dendrites. Neurotrophins support neurons and assist in synaptic plasticity and neuron survival. Many are located within the central nervous system and the neural mechanisms that contribute to addiction (Lovinger, 2008). Steroid hormones represent small molecules that assist with intercellular communication. These hormones are found throughout the central nervous system as well. Lovinger (2008) further describes agonist as molecules that bind to and activate receptors. Antagonists also bind to neurotransmitter receptor sites by competing and blocking receptor activation. Many molecules serve as neurotransmitters, such as the amino acids, glutamate, and glycine. Histamines and different peptides also act as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters play a significant role in addiction. Neurotransmitters Fitzell (2007) defines neurotransmitters as molecules in the brain that transmit chemical reactions in order for neural communication to occur. There are approximately 100 billons neurons in the brain. Neurons release neurotransmitters from one neuron to the next via a presynapitc nerve terminal and receptor site at the synapse. The releasing of a neurotransmitter either triggers a message to other neurons in a chain reaction or a message to disengage signals. There are several neurotransmitters that activate specific receptors site referred to as fitting a key into a lock (Fitzell, 2007). The neurotransmitters include noradrenaline (norepinephrine), and adrenaline (epinephrine), acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, opioids and other peptides, and endocannbinoids. Endorphins and enkephalins produce natural opiates in the brain related to intense pleasure. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) has a stimulating effect on the brain. It is responsible for regulating the heart, breathing, body temperature, and blood pressure. It also may play a role in hallucinations and depression (Fitzell, 2007). Adrenaline (epinephrine) controls paranoia and the fight-or-flight response. It is also responsible for our appetite and feelings of thirst (Fitzell, 2007). Acetylcholine is responsible for muscle coordination, nerve cells, memory, and is involved in the transmission of nerve impulses in the body (Fitzell, 2007). It has a significant role in reaction to stress. GABA is found throughout the brain and in numerous sensory neurons (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). It functions as a regulator of transmitting nerve signals, and it acts on receptor sites, including GPCR, by functioning as an inhibitor. Activation of the receptor sites prohibit the release of neurotransmitters. Ethanol acts as an excitatory for the release of GABA and has a role in alcohol intoxication and contributes to the brains hyperexcitable during alcohol withdrawal. Opiods, cannabinoids, and alcohol all act on GABA through the same brain regions. Glutamate functions as a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the lower brain region (Clapp, Bhave, Hoffman, 2008). It serves most brain neurons and is found throughout the brain. Two receptors, AMPA and NMDA, appear to be involved in learning and memory. Acute alcohol consumption inhibits the release of glutamate and appears to play a role in inhibiting synaptic plasticity and impairment of memory (Lovinger, 2008). Gass and Olive (2008) studied glutamates influence on drug addiction. Studies found that all drugs of abuse utilize glutamate transmissions producing a long-term neuroplasticity in the brain. Glutamate contributes to compulsive drug-seeking behavior and drug-associated memories. Dopamine serves as the most significant neurotransmitter in the brain. It is responsible for controlling our moods, energy, and feelings of pleasure (Fizell, 2007). Dopamine influences brain mechanisms of reward, evaluation of environmental stimuli, general behavioral activity level, and some brain disorders. According to Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, and Roberto (2008), dopamine becomes pervasive throughout the brain and is produced by only a few neurons. It is considered a pure neuromodulator because it becomes activated only by GPCRs. There are five dopamine receptor sites, D1 through D5. Half of the neurons connect to the substantia nigra pars reticulate forming the direct pathway to activating the cortex (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). The other half connect to the globus pallidus internal segmane forming the indirect pathway to slow down cortical output. Dopamine controls performance of action, including the intoxication from alcohol and other drugs (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). Many drugs target dopamine transmission, and dopamine plays a significant role with all drugs. Cocaine, amphetamine and other stimulant drugs either block or reverse the action of the dopamine transporter (Lovington, 2008). As a result, the level of dopamine in the synapse increases. Research shows that interference with dopamine transmission generates an intoxicating and addictive effect with drugs and alcohol Nicotine and alcohol stimulate dopamine. Morphine and other opiates slow GABA activity and indirectly increase the activity of dopamine. It also contributes to learning environmental cues in relation to the context of drug use that encourages drug and alcohol use. Fitzell (2007) describes serotonins role in the brain as relating to the five senses, sleep, aggressive behavior, eating, and hunger. Its release brings about a sense of calm, happiness, peace, satisfaction, signals of fullness, and reduced appetite. A decrease of serotonin or blockage in the brain cells results in aggression and violent behavior. Low levels of serotonin are associated with depression and increased appetite. Serotonin is a very powerful mood enhancer and appetite regulator located in the base of the brain (Fitzell, 2007). According to Lovinger (2008), neurons connect to other neurons through the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex and other forebrain structures. Serotonin influences sensations related to environmental stimuli, perception, learning and memory, and sleep and mood. Serotonin activity involves 15 CPCRs that either increase or decrease neuron output. It is the target of psychoactive drugs, such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin that serve as agonists of serotonin. Amphetamines, such as MDMA also known as ecstasy, interfere with serotonin transporters and increase serotonin levels. It is suspected that the effect may result in sensory-enhanced effects. Alcohol appears to cause a reduction of serotonin uptake. Opioids and other peptides contribute to the brains communication by decreasing excitatory glutamate and inhibitory GABA at the cell level (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). However, GABA continues to have an excitatory effect throughout the brain producing the pain-relieving effect of opioids as well as opioid dependence. Peptides help neuromodulation of the brain through GPCRs. These peptides serve as agonists to receptor sites for morphine, heroine, and other opiate drugs (Lovington, 2008). Three opiate receptors of importance include mu-type, delta-type, and kappa-type (Befort, et al., 2008). Reduction in opioid peptide actions interfere with promoting an increase in dopamine. Lovinger (2008) describes another hormone of particular importance, the corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH communicates signals of stress, mood, and changes in bodily functions. CRH and its receptors play a role in stress, drug addiction, and relapse. The opioid peptides, endorphins, and enk ephalins affect mood, produce intense feelings of pleasure, and can reduce and relieve pain. Endorphins also help in managing stress. Enkephalins help the body fight pain (Fitzell, 2007). Wand (2008) describes a the stress response as involving a glucocorticoid response generated from the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA), activation of peptides corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), and activation of the sympathetic nervous system releasing epinephrine and nonrepinephrine. Endocannabinoids (endogenously formed cannabinoids) and other lipid-derived neuromodulators are involved in synaptic communication and acute reinforcing effects of drugs (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). Lovinger (2008) describes the receptor site CB1 linked to GPCR as functioning to inhibit the release of neurotransmitters. CB1 acts as agonists and influences both inhibitory and excitatory synaptic transmissions (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). As a result, a decrease in several neurotransmitters occurs, including GABA and glutamate. A long-term synaptic depression may occur produced by retrograde endocannabinoid signaling. A consequence of this occurrence plays a key role in learning and memory and associated addiction (Lovinger, 2008). Brain Anatomy of Addiction The brain attempts to counteract the chemical changes caused by drug addiction. The process of neuroadaption or neuromodulation strives to reinstate homeostasis in the brain. Drug addiction influences all aspects of the brain with several significant regions serving more dominant roles. The mesotelencephalic dopamine system is a diffuse pathway consisting of dopamine neurons associated with pleasure (Pinel, 1998). Its cell bodies are connected to two structures in the midbrain tegmentum: substantia nigra or the ventral tegmental area. The axons of these two structures extend into different structures in the telencephalic sites. These structures include frontal cortex, striatum, septum, cingulated cortex, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens. The mesotelencephalic dopamine system is associated with motivation of behaviors and self-administering addictive drugs, sexual behavior, and eating (Pinel, 1998) The substania nigra is a midbrain nucleus of the tegmentum and contains cell bodies of many of the neurons of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system. Its dopaminergic neurons terminate in the striatum (Pinel, 1998). The nigrostriatal pathway is a dopaminergic tract from the substantia nigra to the striatum. The striatum is composed of the caudate and putamen and serves as the terminal of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway. The ventral tegmental area is located medial to the substania nigra and contains cell body of many neurons in the mesotelecephalic dopamine system (Pinel, 1998). The nucleus accumbens is a nucleus located between the striatum and the basal forebrain. It is a major terminal in the mesotelencephalic dopamine system. It plays a critical role in the experience of pleasure (Pinel, 1998). Koob and Simon (2009) indicate that the mesocorticolimbic pathway is the brain circuit that transmits dopamine in the rewarding effects of alcohol and other drugs. The mesocorticolimbic dopamine system represents the reward system in the brain. Neural inputs and outputs interact with the dopamine projections from the ventral tegmental area to the basal forebrain (Koob Simon, 2009; Ikemoto, 2007). Pinel (1998) describes the prefrontal cortex as the large area of the frontal cortex anterior to the primary and secondary motor cortex. It consists of three large areas: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex (Pinel, 1998). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is the large area on the lateral surface of the prefrontal lobes and plays a role in memory for temporal sequence of events but not the actual events, response sequencing, inhibiting incorrect but previously correct responses, developing and following plans of action, and creative thinking. Pinel (1998), indicates that the orbitofrontal cortex is the large area of prefrontal cortex on its anterior pole and inferior surface. Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex results in marked personality changes, an inability to inhibit inappropriate behaviors, and influences social behaviors. The medial prefrontal cortex is the area of the prefrontal cortex on the medial surface of the prefrontal lobe s that when damaged, produces a blunting affect (Pinel, 1998). Amygdala is a major structure in the limbic system. It is an almond-shaped nucleus of the anterior temporal lobe. The central nucleus of the amygdala has the highest density of enkephalins. Enkephalins are found in the cell bodies of GABA neurons, the most abundant type of neuron in the nucleus of the amygdala (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). The amygdala is responsible for the fight or flight emotional reaction. The extended amygdala signifies brain structures located near the front of the lower brain region, referred to as the basal forebrain (Befort, et al.). The extended amygdala is comprised of a number of structures, including the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), and the bed nucleus of stria terminals (BNST). It plays a role in relation to the acute reinforcing effects of drugs and the negative effects of compulsive drug use and reward. The CeA consists mostly of GABA as inhibitory neurons with neuron connections or project to the brainstem or BNST. It is considered the gate that controls information through the intra-amygdaloidal circuits. Befort, et al. (2008) describes the central extended amygdala (EAc) as a network formed by the central amygdala and the BNST controls. It plays a significant role in drug cravings, drug-seeking behaviors, drug rewards, and drug dependence. Hippocampus is the allocortical limbic system structure of the medial temporal lobes and extends from the amygdala at its anterior end to the cingulated cortex and fornix at itsposterior end (Pinel, 1998). The basolateral amygdala mediates motivational effects of drug use and the context associated with drug use in forming emotional memories (Koob, 2009). It plays a major role in learning and memory, particularly in relation to associated drug behaviors. Feltenstein and See (2008) provide a depiction of the brain anatomy and drug related connections in the mesocorticolimbic system. Dopamine projects from cell bodies in the VTA and connect to limbic structures via the mesolimbic pathway (amaygdala, ventral pallidum, hippocampus, and NAcc, and cortical areas (mesocortical pathway, including the prefrontal cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the anterior cingulated gyrus) (Feltenstein See, 2008); Ikemoto, 2007). The NAcc and ventral pallidum serve as the primary effects of drug abuse. The amygdala and hippocampus serve a role in learning as it relates to the process of addiction. The amygdala and ventral hippocampus impact learning in discrete stimulus-response associations. The amygdala and dorsal hippocampus impact learning through stimulus-to-stimulus associations important in contextual learning. The prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate gyrus regulate emotional responses, cognitive control, and executive functioning (Feltenstein See, 2008). Feltenstein See (2008) further indicated that repeated drug exposure leads to neuroadaptions at the cellular level of the prefrontal NAcc glutamatergic pathway that contributes to the persistent addictive behaviors, including diminished cognitive control and hyper-responsiveness to drug-associated stimuli. The mesolimbic pathway is involved in the acute reinforcing effects of drugs and various conditioned responses related to drug cravings and relapse. Cycle of Addiction Drug addiction forms through progressive stages of drug use, impulsivity, and compulsion. Addiction begins with the choice to use drugs for a variety of reasons, such as peer pressure or curiosity; however not everyone who uses drugs develop an addiction. As the drug begins to change neuron interactions, the brain develops neuroadaptive reactions to the drugs invasion. Drug use gradually shifts from recreational drug use to a compulsive drug need based on changes in the brain circuitry. Everitt, et al. (2008) discovered that low levels of dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens predict the propensity to escalate cocaine intake and the shift to compulsive drug-seeking and drug addiction. Kobb (2009) describes three stages of addiction: preoccupation/anticipation, binge intoxication, and withdrawal/negative effect. The three stages feed into each other, become intensified over time, and shift from positive reinforcement to negative reinforcement (Kobb, 2009). Drug use starts with experimentation and enjoying the pleasurable attributes of the drug. In time the addict focuses more on obtaining and using drugs that begins to shift impulsivity to tolerance and cravings in the drug relationship. As the drug begins to control the addict, the positive emotions begin to shift to negative emotions. The addict requires continued use of the drug in order to avoid negative reinforcement and to achieve positive reinforcement. The addict shifts into a compulsive need for the drug. According to Koob and Simon (2009), the binge/intoxication stage of addiction involves the nucleus accumbens-amygdala reward system, dopamine inputs from the ventral tegmental area, local opioid peptide circuits, and opioid peptide inputs in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. The stage of negative withdrawal involves a decrease in function of the reward system and the brain stress neurocircuitry. The preoccupation/anticipation (craving) stage involves key afferent projections to the extended amygdala and nucleus accumbens, specifically the prefrontal cortex (for drug-induced reinstatement), and the basolateral amygdala (for cue-induced reinstatement). Compulsvie drug-seeking behavior appears driven by ventral striatal-ventral pallidalthalamic-cortical loops. In particular, the orbitofrontal cortex in the prefrontal cortex area influences impulsivity and compulsivity in drug addiction (Torregrossa, Quinn, Taylor, 2008). It is also critical in decision making and response selection. The orbitofrontal cortex influences impulsivity in three specific ways: delaying gratification, inability to inhibit strengthened motor responses, and an inability to reflect on potential consequences of action (Torregrossa, Quinn, Taylor, 2008). Schoenbaum and Shaham (2008) concur with the concept of an altered orbitofrontal cortex in drug addicts with a lasting decline in plasticity or the ability to encode new information. Drugs Classifications Commonly Abused Drugs commonly abused change the brains chemistry by interfering with the neurotransmitters and receptor sites. Different classes of drugs appear to affect different receptors either through overproducing a neurotransmitter or blocking the production of a neurotransmitter. All drugs of abuse share enhancement in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine activity, although at different levels. Depressants Ethanol is the primary drug in alcochol. It changes serotonin levels, and acts as a substitute for endorphins. According to Frezell (2007), behaviors that occur when under the influence of the drug include sleepiness, possible violence or aggression, depression, and a dulling of psychological pain. After the effect of alcohol wears off, sleep disturbance, depression, lack of endorphins to relieve normal pain, and cravings for more alcohol occur in reaction to the brains reduction in producing endorphins. Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, and Roberto (2008), indicate that alcohol increases the inhibitory effect of GABA and decreases the excitatory action of glutamate. GABA is involved with the intoxication effects of alcohol and the long-term effects, including tolerance and dependence. The CeA adapts to the changes as alcohol dependence forms. Feltenstein and See (2008) indicate that ethanol interacts with a wide variety o

Development and Aging Essay -- essays research papers

Below, I will describe many factors that are related to development and aging. First, I will talk about how getting older is not a time to sit out, and think life is over. Second, I will define primary and secondary aging. Third, I will talk about how a good healthy diet can help with many diseases in relation to development and old age. Lastly, I will talk about how technology will help many individuals to live a long and health life. Many times when people think of getting older and the aging process they tend to think of turning gray and sitting in a rocking chair watching their life pass them by. This stereotype is slowly being changed thanks to the developments that are being found in research showing that by staying physically and mentally active can help delay some of the onsets of the aging process and help up to live more fulfilled and healthy lives. We all know that aging is inevitable and a natural aspect of life, defined as the gradual loss of the body's ability to respond the environment. Although there are no ways of preventing the aging process from occurring, or finding the so-called "fountain of youth", there are ways to slow down the process and prevent someone from becoming old. As stated in this chapter, despite good health and the absence of disease, primary aging refers to the normal and intrinsic process of biological aging that are generally programmed and that takes place with the passage of time (Lemme 346). As many already know, and as s...

How Dinosaurs Came to Disappear

In this regard, the paper is going to look at the different theories such as sex, drugs, and disaster.. Focusing on the theories used to determine the causes of extinction of these big mammals, one of the critical theories that Gould considers is sex. In this theory, it said that since testes function under low temperatures that are biologically friendly, the sudden increase in temperate during the cretaceous era may have caused the testes to become dysfunctional (Gould). As such dinosaurs disappeared from the earth due to lack of procreation.Another theoretical approach asserts that around the same time, vegetation produce contained contaminated agents which affected the survival of the animals. Additionally, the occurrence of certain disasters such as comet hitting the earth may have created a shade of powder in the sky thereby suppressing the photosynthesis process and fundamentally lowering globe temperature, which made dinosaurs to vanish. On account of logos appeal, the author of the author chooses a previous study that was conducted during the sass. This study focused on one of the close relatives of the dinosaur.The aim was to establish functional traits, especially those focusing on the biological attributes of the animal that can be associated with the dinosaur. In this regard, the study focused on the tolerance of the alligator to extreme heat. The study assessed the amount of heat that alligators can absorb and how this can affect their existence. As such, using an example of an alligator, Gould shows that temperature can cause them to loose the functionality of their physiological system, which is critical for maintaining their temperature.This implies that these creatures have experience suffering during the experience and this causes them to become dysfunctional. Still on the logos appeal, the study also focused on the experience of large mammals such as the dinosaur when there are extreme temperature fluctuations. Gould asserts that large mammal s that have fairly small areas can release heat through a gradual process that enables them to maintain constant temperatures. This only takes place when there are ordinary fluctuations of weather conditions.The author uses a logical appeal to convince the reader that the dinosaur hat became extinct years back had a hefty size, which was too big to be affected by temperature fluctuations. The author uses the study to support his claims. Gould also asserts that large dinosaurs lived in favorable climates where temperature was normal. In this regard, the author recommends that any rise in universal temperatures before the Cretaceous annihilation may have caused the dinosaurs to warm up than their premium tolerance.Since they were bulky, this surplus heat may not have been extreme to kill or even to hamper functionality of the great beasts. However, Gould seems to agree with the previous theoretical position regarding the impact of temperature on testes. Earlier, it was suggested that they work best within a slim range of temperature. As a result, this surplus heat may have sterilized all the male dinosaurs. As such, they were unable to procreate successfully and give rise to future off springs.On ethos appeal, the author brings into light the truth about the drug overdose theory, which claimed that dinosaurs disappeared because their nutrition was interfered with the growth of these bitter and toxic plants. The author agrees that indeed blossoming plants did not develop until tardy in the dinosaurs' regime. He adds that the shrubs produced pungent amino-acid-based alkaloids. However, to claim that these plants could have poisoned the dinosaurs and caused them to disappear was unethical. Gould claims that majority of mammals are able to use their instincts and taste preferences to avoid eating poisonous plants.Even though the plants may have been bitter, mammals have livers that are able to produce antidotes to attack the poison. Indeed, this claim makes sense be cause it is unethical to overlook the biological functionality of the body and its ability to protect the body against toxins. The original study by Siegel claimed that dinosaurs could neither accommodate the flavor of the bitter plants nor cure the food they ingested. Indeed, the only way these animals may have been poisoned was through an overdose. Is there such evidence of an overdose?On pathos appeal, the author attempts to appeal to the emotional centre of the reader by looking at the outer space probes that have a deep association on the literature of dinosaurs destruction, The argument rose yet again in 1979, after a long pause, when the father-son, physicist-geologist squad of Luis and Walter anticipated that an asteroid, some 13 km in thickness, struck the ground 66 million years ago. The strength of such a crash would be massive, greater by distant than the Jumbo tonnage of all the world's nuclear arms.In trying to rebuild a scenario that would elucidate the synchronized d isappearing of dinosaurs on terrain and so many creatures in the aquatic the team proposed that a gargantuan grime shade, caused by particles blown up in the illusion would so dim the earth that photosynthesis (growing of vegetation) would stop and temperatures drop abruptly. The single-celled photosynthetic marine plants, with existence cycles calculated in weeks, would expire completely, but land plants might stay breathing throughout due to the capability of their seeds.Dinosaurs would die by malnourishment and glacial atmosphere; miniature, warm- blooded mammals, with added humble necessities for food and better guideline of body hotness, would yelp through. Indeed, the author figuratively brings out the Lloyd destruction in a way that makes it look like an end of the existence of living things. The reader is left with a vivid image of a humongous object flying from the outers pace, coming at a great speed, and hitting directly on the habitat of dinosaurs.As such, the reader is able to associate this story to similar stories such as those found in the bible, for example, the destruction of the Babylon city. In conclusion, the author does a great Job of analyzing the theories by focusing on the background information, present belief system, application of science, and reality. The theories proposed by the scientists give rise to a number of questions such as how could we likely settle on whether the idea that the rise of temperatures caused testes of the dinosaurs to become dysfunctional and consequently unable to give rise to new offspring?Can this be applied in consideration to the biological realities that we know about? Indeed, this theory carries weight to make a logical appeal to the reader. Could they keep away from the high heat by staying in the shade or caves? On the other hand, the article leaves the reader wondering whether the dinosaurs had a pacific diet that they relied upon and whether this disappeared at the time the bitter shrubs were spro uting.

American History-19th Century Essay - 1598 Words

nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;As urban industrial workers expanded in the 19th century, industry and the industrial work force boomed as well. Workers , however, were met with difficult situations that ultimately led to violent outbursts. Low wages could not buy food and clothes at the same time and conditions in the work place brought about countless deaths and injuries. Growing number of immigrants caused the reduction of wages and insecurity of the workers caused unemployment. There were hostilities between workers, employers, and organizations and complaints of no social safety nets. Due to these chaotic dilemmas, union members decided to emerge as one, in order to overcome the corporations. Methods of†¦show more content†¦Between 1880 and 1900, 35,000 workers were killed annually and another 536,000 were injured. There were more deaths in the working field of railroads and coal mines. There were at least 2000 fatal injuries and one of every 399 railr oad men were killed. In addition, unsafe working conditions played a major role in the suffering of the industrial workers. Conditions in the factories were very poor. In California, 2,000 men, women, and children would share 8 untended outdoor toilets, eat and sleep among insects, and labored temperatures over 100 degrees, often without water available. To top it off, there was a swarm of immigrants that caused factories to be overcrowded. As immigrants increased, working force increased, leaving employers to control the wages. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;If it wasnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t low wages or long hours, it was job insecurities. Only a few workers could count on full-time employment. Depressions and recessions led to cyclical employment, style and weather caused seasonal employment, and machines replacing humans brought structural employment. There were no social welfare programs or a social safety net to turn to. A social safety net was a social welfare program funded by the government that compensated for the injuries, illnesses, and welfares for workers and single mothers. No safety net meant bad news to the unemployed workers. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There were 3 level of workers: unskilled workers (who were laborers), machineShow MoreRelatedAfrican American History During The 19th Century Essay1734 Words   |  7 Pagestaken together describe the development of African Americans from the 16th century to the 19th century. They reveal how their status changed to one of complete submission and their lower position codified within the law. However they also reveal how they were able to make a difference and help secure their own freedom. Common themes present in the texts are resistance and creolization. The texts are significant in that they show how African Americans were able to adapt to life in America. How theyRead More19th Century American History: Americas Second War of Independence1649 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿19th Century American History Introduction The United States of 1812 1840 rode a roller coaster of exciting expansion, deep financial crisis and rising nationalism. American pre-war tendency to explore and assume the West was empowered by the wars end, military bounties, improved transportation and the governments sometimes euphemistic descriptions of the West. The excesses of this Era of Good Feeling, combined with international and national factors, plunged America into the Panic of 1819Read MoreOrder 1466 US Domestic Issues And The World Late 19th Early 20th Century744 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿Name: Lecturer: Course: Date: US domestic issues and the world (late 19th-early 20th century) Introduction America has a very rich history when it comes to domestic policies, socioeconomic conditions and culture. The domestic policies, socioeconomics conditions and culture affect all aspect of American peoples’ lives. They shape and define the people identity. However, as world progressed these factors of life began to change taking the modernity culture and some of them began taking differentRead MoreThe First Midterm Assignment During American History1500 Words   |  6 PagesThe late-19th century was the most prolonged time period in American history and also what the bloodiest. Many violent events occurred that gave the 19th century its name, such as, profound labor conflicts between boss and workers, the Indian wars that was an extended battle for peace and a benefit in their lifestyles, the Jim Crow law which was established to separate races throughout the city, and also the fight for the American Empires power. These were the major issues that made the 19th centuryRead Mo reRediscovering The American Frontier Of The United States882 Words   |  4 PagesRediscovering the American Frontier Humans have always had a sense of curiosity for the unknown and a greedy fascination for individual growth without seeing the repercussions on others. The United States culminates these qualities not only as a first-world country but it can also be seen from the very beginnings of the nation’s history. The philosophies’ of early settlers in the United States was to have equality between the people, however Americans failed to incorporate this ideology of equalityRead MoreHistory of American Poetry753 Words   |  3 Pagesits beginning, American poetry was extremely influenced by its European roots. This is evidenced by the fact that the first colonists were English, who also brought along their poetic styles and patterns. These European traits set the standard for the genesis of American poetry, which will later we further developed and adapted by Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson, who are now considered to be the first great American poets. Because of the strong ties to European poetry, American poets wanted toRead MoreFeminists, Abolitionists, and Democracy Essay736 Words   |  3 Pageswomen and African-Americans. These groups rose up to declare their rights to equality and freedom under the law. The women’s rights and abolitionist movements of the early 19th century highlight the strengths of ideology and weaknesses of practice of democracy in early America. Although the rights to vote and hold property were restricted to women in the early 19th century, they grew to be more independent. For example, 10% of women were spinsters who refused to marry. (The American Pageant, 331) AdditionallyRead MoreA Study of Charles Van Dorens A History of Knowledge733 Words   |  3 PagesA History of Knowledge Pages 243-283 of Charles Van Dorens A history of knowledge: Past, present and future (Van Doren, 1991), chronicle numerous inventions and new ideas that form the basis of Modernity. Several of these new ideas involved the economy. In the old, feudal system, the economy was chiefly based on agriculture: the peasants grew crops on land belonging to a lord or the King, gave some of the crops to the lord or King and were allowed to keep some crops in order to live; also, clericsRead More19th Century Industrialization Essay1485 Words   |  6 Pages19th Century Industrialization Nineteenth Century Industrialization During the second half of the nineteenth century, the United States experienced an urban revolution unparalleled in world history up to that point in time. As factories, mines, and mills sprouted out across the map, cities grew up around them. The late nineteenth century, declared an economist in 1889, was not only the age of cities, but the age of great cities. Between 1860 and 1910, the urban population grew from 6 millionRead MoreAmericanization of Foods: Food is traditionally considered as a simple means of subsistence but1400 Words   |  6 Pagesgroup customs. In the early 17th and 18th centuries, this mere means of subsistence was considered as a class maker but developed to become a symbol of national identity in the 19th centuries. In the United States, food has been influenced by various cultures such as Native American, Latin America, and Asian cultures. Consequently, Americans have constantly Americanized the foods of different cultures to become American foods. The process on how Americans have Americanized different cultures’ foods

The Theory Of Differential Association Essay - 1501 Words

Introduction Why do criminals commit crime? How to we learn to commit crime? These questions can be answered using social learning theory. Social learning approach is the assumption that all human behavior is socially learned (Thompson, Bynum 2013 115). The theory of differential association was developed by Edwin Sutherland to try and explain the development of criminal behavior. Essentially what this theory says is that deviant group behavior results from normative conflict. Normative conflict arises when multiple probable rules exist, specifying how one ought to behave in a given situation. Conflicts among norms affect deviant people of a variety of social groups. An individual is part of many social groups including friends, family, and school. Every group has its own set of social norms. Sometimes the norms between these groups can conflict with each other resulting in the possibility of deviant behavior Delinquency is a learned behavior and is learned in the same way we learn everything else. It is learning through social interactions with others in your close personal groups. When the groups that you are a part of participate in delinquent behavior that individual is more likely to learn and engage in that delinquent behavior. Not only are you learning how to be delinquent or the techniques that go along with this deviant behavior, one also learns the motivation behind this behavior. When you learn and identify with these motivations you re a lot more likely toShow MoreRelatedDifferential Association Theory1790 Words   |  8 PagesThe famous criminologist Edwin Sutherland developed Differential Association Theory in 1939. He felt that criminal behavior is behavior, learned, and is learned in face-to-face interactions with others. Differential association, which operates on the individual level, is where behavior is learned through interaction with others. Through this interaction an individual will learn the techniques and skills necessary to commit crime as well as the motives, rationalization, and attitudes necessary forRead MoreThe Theory Of The Differential Association Theory2539 Words   |  11 PagesVarious criminological theories have been constructed attempting to determine factors that contribute to how individuals begin to engage in deviant behavior. The Differential Association Theory established in 1947 by Edwin Sutherland, an American Criminologist, evaluates how delinquent behavior is learned through social interaction as well as learning from the legal definitions of laws and crimes. For example, an individual learning definitions that are favorable to breaking the law from peers orRead MoreDefinition Of Differential Association Theory917 Words   |  4 PagesDifferential Association In Edwin Sutherland theory has been around for over 30 years which is one of the most popular theories that there is in criminal behaviors. The differential association theory is considered to be one of the most and best formulation of theory of criminality, holds, in essence, that criminality in learned interactions from others through a way of communication (Cressey, 1954). Sutherland he explains how individual behaviors are learned behaviors and that people are notRead MoreDifferential Association Theory Essay1671 Words   |  7 PagesThis essay will discuss three theories, the differential association theory, the labelling theory and the rationale choice theory. The theories will discussed and how they can explain crime will also be discussed, and then a comparison of the theories will be given in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses in explaining youth crime. Theories within criminology try to explain why and how crime occurs. This is done through examining variou s facts that are related to the individual s criminalRead MoreSutherlands Differential Association Theory1430 Words   |  6 PagesSutherland’s Differential Association Theory Ryan Herron Dr. Patrick Parnaby SOC 2070 9 November 2017  There are many theories used by Sociologists to explain deviance. One such theory is differential association theory, proposed by Edwin Sutherland. There are many strengths and weaknesses of differential association that will be laid out in this paper after differential association theory is fully explained. When discussed, it becomes apparent that differential association theory has many strengthsRead MoreDifferential Association Theory Essay1292 Words   |  6 PagesThe Differential Association Theory, established by Edwin Sutherland in 1947, explicit the deviance of an individuals behavior and how it is learned through interaction with others or associations. There are several components that play a role in this theory that determines the main causes of delinquency. One of the components of this theory is, a person do not inherently become a criminal, it is a learned behavior. A person cannot decide one day he wants to commit a crime if he is not influenceRead MoreDifferential Association Theory Essay1739 Words   |  7 Pagescriminological theory and bullying to help explain the behavior of those individuals who participate in bullying. Differential Association Theory was introduced in 1939 by Edwin H. Sutherland and aimed at explaining how and why certain individuals commit deviant (criminal) acts. Additionally, Differential Association theory, believes that the behaviors of an individual are influenced and shaped by others they associate with. To support this assertion, I will provide a description of Differential AssociationRead MoreThe Association Between Differential Association Theory and Burglary1358 Words   |  6 Pagesan explanation into how differential association theory explains burglary. The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) considers burglary a Type 1 Index Crime because of its potentially violent nature. The FBI breaks burglary down into three sub-classifications. This paper discusses the elements of the crime of burglary and what constitutes a structure or dwelling. It will discuss a brief history of the deviance, trends, rates, and how it correlates to the specific theory that this paper will alsoRead MoreThe Strengths Of Labelling Theory And Differential Association Theory1703 Words   |  7 PagesLabelling Theory can explain the factor of low socioeconomic status while Differential Association Theory can explain how the factor of family as reasons why some youth join gangs. This paper compares the relative strengths and weaknesses of Differential Association theory and Labelling theory and I argue that Labelling Theory offers the most compelling theoretical perspective to help account for how these factors influence youth to join gangs. I also argue that unlike the other two theories, a MarxistRead MoreDifferential Association and Social Bonding Theory1852 Words   |  8 PagesDifferential Association and Social Bonding Theory Introduction The purpose of the following study is determine what, if any, the components of social bonding theory and differential association play on the lives of college students. This study is composed of three hypotheses: A) If the amount of commitment to the college goes up will deviance go down?; B) If involvement with the college is increased then does deviance go down?; and C) If a student associates, or attaches, themselves to deviant

Susan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers - 1408 Words

Growing up in Iowa in the 1800s and 1900s, Susan Glaspell took inspiration for many of her stories from personal experiences. As a former courthouse reporter herself, Glaspell’s short story â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† is based largely on her involvement with a murder case and a kitchen she recalled investigating. â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers,† a rendition of her early play, Trifles, focuses on the homicide of an abusive husband by his wife. While the men investigating the case overlook the various signs of abuse, their wives work together to defend the widow. During this time period, sexism was a widely spread concept. Glaspell was a strong willed advocate of women’s rights, and promoted feminism throughout her life, oftentimes featuring this concept in†¦show more content†¦She writes, â€Å"The men, all representatives of the Law (the sheriff, the prosecutor, and a witness), are oriented to a mechanistic view of legal propriety: they react to an act ion and look for the evidence to justify the retribution they wish to enact† (Bendel-Sismo 1). She then compares the beliefs of the men to women, whose views shift as they learn more about the murder and the reasons behind the widow’s actions. â€Å"Unlike the men, the women conclude that a different crime has been committed, and that the crime the men perceive is, in fact, justice being enacted. While the men see John Wright s death as the point of departure for their investigation, the women see his death as closure; not the beginning, but the end, and as such their role is to protect Minnie Foster† (Bendel-Sismo 1). While the men in Glaspell’s story are quick to search for ways to convict Mrs. Wright, often overlooking details, their wives dig deeper to learn about the real reason behind her husband’s death. â€Å"‘Nothing here but kitchen things,’ he said, with a little laugh for the insignificance of kitchen things† (Glaspel l 6). The critic concludes that the motives of the men and women while investigating the murder are a result of psychological differences differences of genders during this time period. She sums up her statement by saying, â€Å"While the women can seek Justice for other women, the men in charge of the case--by their very nature as men--can seek Justice only for men (their peers),Show MoreRelatedSusan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers1174 Words   |  5 Pages A Jury of Her Peers is a short story written by Susan Glaspell in 1917 and follows the investigation of the murder of John Wright, with his wife Minnie Wright being the alleged murderer. Martha and Lewis Hale assist Sheriff Peters and his wife, Mrs. Peters, with investigating the scene of the crime. Throughout the story, women notice significance in their findings, of which the men overlook. The men have a dismissive attitude towards the women, ignoring their contributions. When the women solveRead MoreSusan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers995 Words   |  4 Pagesprominent theme in the 1900’s, during a time when women were often treated as second class citizens to men. Susan Glaspell wrote the play â€Å"Trifles,† in 1916, which portrayed how women’s lives were seen as less significant throughout American society. The following year, Glaspell wrote the short story â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers,† which was essentially a longer and more detailed version of â€Å"Trifles.† The stories are alike in many societal implications, since â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† was based off of â€Å"TriflesRead MoreSusan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers Essay982 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† by Susan Glaspell is now known as a feminist classic. Susan Glaspell first published the play â€Å"Trifles† in 1916 and was adapted to the short story â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† in 1917. The story was rediscovered in the early 1970s, since then it has been reprin ted into textbooks and anthologies. It is said that while Glaspell was working as a reporter she was inspired to write â€Å"Trifles† and â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers.† The stories are inspired by a real murder case she was covering. TheRead MoreSusan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers999 Words   |  4 PagesFrom beginning to end, Susan Glaspell’s 1917 short story â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers,† has several repetitive patterns and symbols that help the reader gain a profound understanding of how hard life is for women at the turn-of-the-century, as well as the bonds women share. In the story two women go with their husbands and county attorney to a remote house where Mr. Wright has been killed in his bed with a rope and he suspect is Minnie, his wife. Early in the story, Mrs. Hale sympathizes with Minnie andRead MoreSusan Glaspell s Jury Of Her Peers1841 Words   |  8 PagesName: ZaZa Horton Professor: Leblanc Course: Anicent Woman in Greece 20 April 2015 Susan Glaspell’s â€Å"Jury of Her Peers† â€Å"Jury of Her Peers† is a short story that revolves around the strange death of john wright. It is a piece of work that exposes sexism on women. Women have been categorized for some time now based on their gender and not on ability and skills. They have always fell at the short end of the stick when compare against men. Nevertheless, there were many similarities as well asRead MoreSusan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers878 Words   |  4 Pages In â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers,† Susan Glaspell crafts an intricate portrayal of these differences, but also provides a closer look at interpersonal relationships in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as how one’s atmosphere may affect the mind. Glaspell’s commentary is clear regarding the standing of men and women of the time, with the male characters being in positions of duty and respect, and the female characters being in positions of maintenance. These choices made by Glaspell allow theRead MoreSusan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers Essay1164 Words   |  5 PagesSusan Glaspell was a prolific author, playwright, journalist and novelist in the early 1900s. Early in her career as a reporter she wrote many articles including the newspaper coverage of a murder trial known as the Hossack Case when she worked for The Des Moines Daily News in Des Moines, Iowa. This murder trial was a much publicized event in which a woman, Margaret Hossack, was accused of murdering her prosperous husband on the couple’s farm in Des Moines. In these newspaper articles dated fromRead MoreSusan Glaspell s A Jury Of Her Peers Essay1789 Words   |  8 Pagesdefined as the treatment of someone or something with due fairness, but the fa irness of a situation is often seen differently, depending upon the viewer. In Susan Glaspell’s, A Jury of Her Peers, the idea of who is capable to fairly judge a person, and therefore serve justice, is examined through the arrest of Mrs. Minnie Wright for the murder of her husband. As the sheriff and others go to the Wrights’ house, the suggestion is made that those empowered by law to cast judgement and those with an understandingRead MoreSusan Glaspell s `` The Yellow Wallpaper `` And A Jury Of Her Peers ``2004 Words   |  9 Pagesof mankind. Women, in particular, fight for fairness even in today’s society. This everlasting battle can be seen in both â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† by Charlotte Perkins Gilman and â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† by Susan Glaspell. Gilman’s story revolves around a woman who has postpartum depression. Her husband, who is also her physician, uses isolation to try and heal his wife’s â€Å"nervous disea se.† Glaspell’s story, on the other hand, describes the murder of a man, with his wife being the prime suspect. Read MoreSusan Glaspell s Trifles And A Jury Of Her Peers984 Words   |  4 PagesAlthough â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† and â€Å"Trifles† are similar in plot, Mustazza’s article, â€Å"Generic Translation and Thematic Shift in Susan Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’ and ‘A Jury of Her Peers’† highlights the differences and similarities between the two. Mustazza’s article may help aid readers to understand the differences between Glaspell’s two works and provide understanding as to why Glaspell may have changed the genre and form of the plot. â€Å"Trifles† is a dramatic play whereas â€Å"A Jury of Her Peers† is prose

Subculture/Counterculture of Raves free essay sample

What does one think of the word rave? Does ranting and raving come to mind as a way of communication or does flashing lights, dance music, and the use of drugs come to mind? If the youth of society were to be asked this question, every single of one of them would refer the word rave as a party filled with dance music and ecstasy. This youth movement has evolved into an electronic music subculture known as rave (Morris 1).A subculture is a separate world within the larger dominant culture that has the same values of he dominant culture but is different enough to be classified as a subculture (Heinlein 46). The rave subculture can be also be classified as a counterculture, defined as a subculture with values and norms counter acting the values and norms of dominant society (Heinlein 47). Rave culture can be classified as a counterculture where the youth involved partake in multiple acts of deviance and violate the social norms. We will write a custom essay sample on Subculture/Counterculture of Raves or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Deviance is the term used to refer to any violation of a norm in society (Heinlein 134).Raves are deviant in multiple ways because they violate many arms in society. Raves violate norms to such an extent that crimes are being committed. Crimes are such extreme acts of deviance that they are written and made into laws by society (Heinlein 134). Many of these laws are broken at raves. The crime most commonly committed and associated with raves is drug use. Among all illegal drugs, ecstasy use is the most prevalent at electric dance music concerts, otherwise known as raves. Ecstasy is the common name for the illegal substance known as MADAM. MADAM is a methamphetamine that gets one going and feeling good.Ecstasy is often offered to as a feel good drug because it gives you a heightened perception of sensation due to high amounts of serotonin that MADAM causes the release of (Hess). Other effects of ecstasy include elevated mood, calmness, sense of well-being, congeniality, compassion, and heightened sense of sexual pleasure (Hess). Ecstasy also suppresses the need to sleep or eat; one can stay up for multiple days without eating when on ecstasy (Hess). Jason Attackable, the author of Rave new world, stated that, every youth will tell you its about the music.But really, ecstasy is what makes a rave a rave (1 The music is a very important part of the rave, it is what the crowd thrives on and what keeps the party going; but in reality, the culture is so embedded with drugs like ecstasy that without these drugs, electronic dance music would not be popular among the youth. Ecstasy is essential to a rave just as much as LSI was essential to the hippie culture of the sixties (Attackable 1 The youth take ecstasy when going to raves just as hippies took LSI when going to music festivals.Ecstasy use is extremely prevalent among raves and it is what the raves thrive on. Ecstasy is the most frequent drug used at raves. According to a study done in Baltimore regarding the prevalence of ecstasy use among a sample of rave goers, 89 percent admitted to lifetime ecstasy use (Doodles 1). Out of the sample of rave attendees, twenty percent tested po sitive for ecstasy, meaning they took the drug with in the last forty-eight hours (Doodles 1). This study concluded that rave attendees are at high risk for ecstasy use and are more likely to abuse multiple drugs, not jus ecstasy (Doodles 2).The increase use of ecstasy among the youth has sparked the attention of health officials and policy makers (Doodles 1). Such attention has been sparked regarding the rave phenomenon that the U. S. Has taken a new approach to its war on drugs it has declared a war on raves'(Jordan 99). The government is well aware of the rave counterculture and they are well aware of the prevalence of ecstasy in the scene. Government believes that the deviance a rave causes to be great enough to write it in law and make such operations illegal. For the first time the government will be applying the Federal Crack House Statue to raves.They will arrest and criminally prosecute rave promoters and mangers or ultimately making raves readily available for the use of ecstasy (Garden 99). Rave promoters and managers are also at blame for making the rave environment suitable for ecstasy users by selling things like pacifiers, light sticks, and Vicki vapor rub (Graded 99). Ecstasy users use these types of things to enhance their high throughout the night. Rave promoters are well aware that pacifiers signify ecstasy use at a rave and these promoters are going to be the ones at fault for providing a space knowing ecstasy use will occur. The rave culture is the product of ecstasy.The reasoning behind all the norms of this counterculture is ecstasy. Even if some rave goers are not using ecstasy, the environment at a rave that results from ecstasy use can be jus as much considered deviant as actually taking ecstasy (Attackable 1). Although ecstasy produces a congenial and compassionate state of mind, it also causes a a heightened sense of sexual pleasure (Hess). Therefore, the user might be willing to get intimate with anyone, girl or guy. According to society, having sexual intercourse with out love is considered deviant and it is considered even more deviant to partake in same sex intercourse.Ata rave many delinquents can be seen partaking in sexual acts on the dance floor, in the bathrooms, or even in corners. Another act of deviance that can be witnessed at a rave is nudity. Because of the heightened sexual awareness and the rise in body temperature as a result of ecstasy, it has become the norm at raves to wear little or close to nothing (Hess). Girls are commonly seen wearing just undergarments such as bras, thongs, and hosiery. Some girls go to the extreme and wear just pasties that solely cover their nipples ND on occasion women will be completely topless.If a female was dressed like this outside of a rave, she would be breaking societal norms and may even be committing a crime. Taking illegal drugs, having sex, and walking around naked are all part of the rave culture. Taking ecstasy is a completely normal thing to do as a part of the rave subculture but society deems it as deviant and criminal act. This is why the rave subculture is considered a counterculture; the rave cultures norms counter act a lot of society norms. It is not normal to be engaging in sexual activities with the same sex, but to raves, girls kissing girls is completely normal. Society does not approve of women walking around only in undergarments, but to raves it is expected and completely normal. Raves tend to last well into the night if not all night. Many rave goers take ecstasy in order to stay up all night and party. Some raves and music festivals last multiple days and its the ecstasy that keeps the party goers going and partying for days on end (Hess). Partying for days straight without sleep is not a normal way of functioning in society and therefore it is an act of evince. The people of the rave subculture commonly partake in rituals that would never been Seen outside a rave.Subcultures that are focused around one activity, like the rave subculture is centered around raves, usually develops special ways to communicate (Heinlein 46). The rave subculture has special rituals and symbols that outsiders would not understand. One of these includes trading beaded bracelets that they have made known as candy. In order to exchange this peace of candy with another person there is a ritual that must be completed. It starts off with making a heart with the other arsons hand and ends with a hug once the candy/ bracelet has been traded.An outsider would never understand that trading this bracelet in such fashion represents peace love unity and respect. Peace, love, unity and respect make up the acronym BLUR and is a very big part to the rave subculture. BLUR is another symbol that an outsider to the rave community would never understand. Another ritual part of the rave subculture is light shows. A light show is when one person spins sociologist or LED lights in such fashion to create drippy looking light trails viewable to a person on ecstasy.Since ones senses are heightened on ecstasy, these light shows are greatly intensified to those using. Light shows are extremely popular at raves and kids can be seen everywhere giving or receiving such light shows. Other less deviant rituals thats have came from the rave subculture is forms of dance. Go-go dancing is extremely popular at raves; go-go dancers usually perform on stage with little clothing for added entertainment. Shuffling is also a common form of dance seen at raves and has become popular due to electronic dance music. Other dance forms like liquidation and touting having also risen from the rave subculture. These forms of dance all came from the rave culture but can be seen as popular in society today. The general gist of a rave is seen as deviant because of the sex, drugs, and all night partying. Society frowns upon the rave goers mostly because of the ecstasy use that is associated so well with raves. Raves are so embedded with drugs like ecstasy that the government has taken notice and is now implementing laws. Laws are being put into place at raves because raves themselves are acts of deviance.Since the rave subculture partakes in many Viviane acts such as using drugs and being nude, their culture is considered a counter culture because their norms counter act the norms of society.